History Painting

By Emma Strong. Art History 201: Art and Revolution 1750-1850. Grade: A.


History painting was regarded as the highest genre in the hierarchy of arts. It showcased narrative works on a monumental scale and sought to encourage an intellectual and didactic comprehension. The late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century was a time of immense social, philosophical, scientific and political change, which gave rise to a period of history art that encapsulated these significant developments and expanded the genre of history painting.  War broke out across Europe and also in North America between Britain and France. These events were captured in history painting and rendered in the prevailing neoclassical and romantic styles. Archaeological excavations promoted classical influences in history painting. Neoclassicism encouraged artists to look back to antiquity for the ideal model of art, which exemplified ideals of noble simplicity and sedate grandeur.[1] Romanticism, on the other hand, advocated the use of an artist’s imagination and emotions, in a reaction against the more rational and intellectual approach of pure neoclassicism. Neoclassical concerns and the development of romantic ideas facilitated the evolution of history painting and enabled a greater range of history paintings to emerge. The aim of this essay is to illustrate that the genre of history painting not only provides insight into history itself, but also the artistic concerns and contexts of the neoclassical and romantic movements that triumphed during this significant period in art history.

Plate One. Jacques-Louis David, Oath of Horatii, 1784, (oil on canvas, 3.26 x 4.2m), Paris, Louvre.

Plate One. Jacques-Louis David, Oath of Horatii, 1784, (oil on canvas, 3.26 x 4.2m), Paris, Louvre.

History painting usually depicted religious subject matter, but in the mid-eighteenth century narratives from ancient Greece and Rome began to emerge. Artworks showcased the interest in antiquity, where classical heroes exuded the neoclassical ideals of nobility and dignity, exemplifying the ideal model of man.[2]  Jacques-Louis David’s Oath of Horatii, 1784 (Plate One), epitomises this characteristic of history painting and demonstrates the predominant neoclassical concerns of the time. The three Horatii brothers defended Rome against raiders from the enemy Kingdom of Alba.[3] In the artwork, the brothers pledge their allegiance to the Roman Republic. David has used this ancient story as a vehicle to convey political ideals relevant to France’s contemporary political turmoil, on the cusp of revolution. This monumental artwork evokes the noble virtues of heroic sacrifice and one’s civic loyalty above family and self.[4] The brothers’ over lapping poses and interlocking gestures showcase David’s desire to promote national unity during a time of great discontent in France. The painting became an emblem of the French Revolution, as a result of the high morals of liberty, unity and fraternity epitomised in the scene.[5] The artwork provided a prototype for the idealistic moral behaviour of heroism and self-sacrifice, which would be called for during the French Revolution.[6] This also relates to the neoclassical concern for art to be didactic and have an ethical purpose, in order to enlighten the viewer to a higher intellectual understanding. The scene is placed in the foreground, the figures are highly idealised with well-delineated forms and clear narrative poses, which demonstrates the neoclassical regard for clarity. Moreover, the formal and austere composition of the scene is influenced by the reliefs found on ancient sarcophagi.[7] This reinforces the neoclassical concern for looking back to antiquity to create great art, as advocated by its principal exponent, Johann Joachim Winckelmann.[8] David’s highly classicised depiction of the antique costumes and stoical setting, allude to the discoveries of classical art in the ancient communities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, which occurred during this time. David’s Oath of Horatii illustrates the prevalent artistic concerns of neoclassicism, as well as providing a window into ancient history and the ideals that would be employed in the upcoming the French Revolution in 1789.

Plate Two. Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe, 1770, (oil on canvas, 1.51 x 2.13m), Ottawa, National Gallery.

Plate Two. Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe, 1770, (oil on canvas, 1.51 x 2.13m), Ottawa, National Gallery.

During the late eighteenth century, history painting expanded its subject matter to contemporary events, celebrating heroes that fought in the various wars that broke out during this time. At the forefront of this evolution of history painting was Benjamin West’s The Death of General Wolfe, 1770 (Plate Two).  This artwork depicts the Battle of Quebec, Canada 1759, during the Seven Year’s War (1756-63).[9]  West immortalises the moment when the critically wounded British General James Wolfe lies dying on the battlefield in the presence of companions, while a messenger in the distance runs over to give the General the news of his victory over the French forces. This moment memorialised the tragic loss of a young British war hero and a crucial episode in the struggle for colonial supremacy in North America between Britain and France. West tactfully merged the need for historical fact and the neoclassical concerns for history art to exude a higher ideal of sacrifice and nobility as advocated by the Royal Academy.[10]  The pose of General Wolfe is reminiscent of the classical sculpture, The Dying Gladiator, 241-197 B.C, which links Wolfe to the death of a classical hero and also to the antique features of nobility and death with dignity. The artwork acts as a didactic tool for society, exemplifying ideals of personal sacrifice, courage and bravery. The work illustrates the neoclassical concern for history painting to present a model for humanity. West has included the noble savage in the forefront of the work. This North American Indian character is portrayed in an idealised classical form in keeping with the neoclassical concern for the quotation of classical sculpture. Furthermore, the noble savage alludes to the new found artistic interest in the exotic and the belief that native people shared a stronger connection to ancient Greco-Romans than to people of the contemporary western world. West broke with the traditional neoclassical principle of depicting both past and contemporary heroes, in classical clothing.  Instead, West cited the law of the historian, expressing that “the same truth that guides the pen of the historian should govern the pencil of an artist”[11]. The depiction of the modern hero in contemporary dress on the battlefield, gives the painting a greater sense of authenticity, integrity and propriety, in keeping with the time period in which the event took place, and the artwork was created. The Death of General Wolfe reinterprets the principles of history painting during the late eighteenth century and offers a new visual language, incorporating neoclassical concerns and the desire for the accurate recording of history.

Plate Three. Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814, (oil on canvas, 2.68 x 3.47m), Madrid, Museo del Prado.

Plate Three. Francisco Goya, The Third of May 1808, 1814, (oil on canvas, 2.68 x 3.47m), Madrid, Museo del Prado.

During the early nineteenth century, wars, revolutions and uprisings once again provided subject matter for history painting.  Goya, a Spanish artist, commemorated two heroic moments taken from the events of the Resistance during the occupation of Spain by Napoleonic forces, 1808-1814.[12] The second of the two works, The Third of May 1808, 1814 (Plate Three), not only provides insight into an historical event of the Spanish Resistance, but also into the development of romantic ideas. This painting depicts the episode when Napoleonic soldiers summarily execute people who were believed to have been involved in an assault on French mercenaries, carried out the day before.[13] The artwork showcases the artist’s desire to express the complex emotions that were aroused by this horrific event. Goya has highlighted the romantic concerns of heroism and the inherent value of the individual, through the victims of the execution. The monumental church in the background is cast in shadow, illustrating Goya’s belief that the church stood witness to the terror unleashed on Spain by the French forces, and failed to act. The central victim is of a grand size with marks of the stigmata on his hands, linking him to Christ and to the idea of the romantic hero. He is lit with a white and golden hue, exposing the despair and the dreadful violence taking place. Goya’s dramatic depiction of the scene in its climactic moment displays the romantic concern to arouse an intense emotional reaction in the viewer. Romanticism reacted against the severe rigidity of neoclassicism, evident in Goya’s more expressive brush strokes, use of colour and imperfect forms. This history painting not only provides insight into an historical event, but also into the intense human emotions and reactions that arise out of events of war. It became a potent disclosure of the horrors of war and illustrated the emotional and responsive concerns of romanticism.[14]

Plate Four. Eugene Delacroix, Massacre at Chios, 1824, (oil on canvas, 419 x 354cm), Paris, Louvre.

Plate Four. Eugene Delacroix, Massacre at Chios, 1824, (oil on canvas, 419 x 354cm), Paris, Louvre.

Delacroix’s The Massacre at Chios, 1824 (Plate Four), further illustrates the devastation caused by wars of the nineteenth century and the evolution of romantic concerns in history art. The painting immortalises an event from the Greek War of Independence fought against the Ottoman Empire.[15]  In 1821, the Turks invaded the Greek island of Chios, killing or enslaving the island’s population of 20,000.[16] This history painting provides insight into a contemporary event and the interest of the French in promoting the endeavours of liberty across Europe. The painting captures the romantic zeal for individual freedom. The exhausted victims have been rounded up by the Turkish soldiers and are slumped together across the foreground. Delacroix has employed this neoclassical layout, in order to enhance the romantic ambition to evoke an intense emotional response in the viewer. This illustrates romanticism’s adaptation of neoclassical features to suit the new emotional concerns of the romantics. The background of barren land and apparent chaos among people reveals the extent of the devastation. The romantic concern of the individual is evident in the figures in the foreground. The terror, struggle and suffering are inescapable to the viewer, with each individual conveying different levels of human suffering. The twisting and turning forms of the figures further convey the turmoil of the scene, reinforcing the romantic concern to elicit an emotional response in the viewer. The figures, setting and costumes convey the romantic enthusiasm for the exotic. Delacroix’s brushwork is free and open, signalling the importance of instinct, intuition and expression, promoted by romanticism. The scene conveys no high ethical purpose, as in neoclassical works, but only romantic destruction. Delacroix further developed these romantic notions in his colossal The Death of Sardanapalus, 1827, which showcases an horrific event of the ancient world, in which he employs the same romantic concern to evoke an emotional response in the viewer.

During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the relationship between history and art was very much entwined. Historical contexts provided the subject matter and in turn, stimulated new artistic concerns, which resulted in the evolution of history painting. Increased knowledge of classical literature and art during this time provided the foundation for neoclassicism. Furthermore, the enormous political and social transformations stimulated the need for history art to memorialise contemporary events. They were first captured in the idealised and well-delineated neoclassical style, which endeavoured to provide an ethical example for humanity. The intense emotions aroused by the brutality of war, saw the Romantics strive to immortalise these feelings in history art. David’s Oath of Horatii, not only provides an insight into an important historical battle of Ancient Rome, but also into the contemporary concerns of the French Revolution. West’s and David’s glorification of human sacrifice in their history paintings, conveys the ideal hero of war. On the other hand, Goya and Delacroix’s depiction of war is highly emotive and expressive, placing emphasis on the tragedy, not the glory of war. The disparity in the dates between the artworks, illustrates that the development of neoclassical and romantic ideas did not occur in a straightforward progression, but was advanced and refined by each artist and their approach to capturing history. The four history paintings described above, not only showcase the historical contexts of the time, but also exemplify the triumphant neoclassical and romantic ideas that flourished during this period.


[1] David Irwin, Neoclassicism (London: Phaidon, 1997) 34.

[2] Ibid.

[3] David B. Brown, Romanticism (New York: Phaidon, 2001), 74.

[4] Ibid.

[5] David B. Brown, Romanticism, 74.

[6] Robert Rosenblum and H.W. Jason, 19th Century Art: Revised and Updated (London: Laurence King Publishing, 2005), 30.

[7] David B. Brown, Romanticism, 74.

[8] David Irwin, Neoclassicism, 34-35.

[9] Michelle Facos, An Introduction to Nineteenth-Century Art (New York: Routledge, 2011), 52.

[10] Robert Rosenblum and H.W. Jason, 19th Century Art: Revised and Updated, 18.

[11] David Irwin, Neoclassicism (London: Phaidon, 1997), 169.

[12] Robert Rosenblum and H.W. Jason, 19th Century Art: Revised and Updated), 46-47.

[13] David B. Brown, Romanticism, 108.

[14] Robert Rosenblum and H.W. Jason, 19th Century Art: Revised and Updated, 46-47.

[15] Ibid., 134-5.

[16] Ibid.

Bibliography:

Brown, David B. Romanticism. New York: Phaidon, 2001.

Facos, Michelle. An Introduction to Nineteenth-Century Art. New York: Routledge, 2011. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/auckland/detail.action?docID=668579.

Irwin, David. Neoclassicism. London: Phaidon, 1997.

Rosenblum, Robert, Janson, H.W. 19th Century Art: Revised and Updated. London: Laurence King Publishing, 2005.


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